Introduction
T2DM is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by persistent hyperglycemia due to defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both.1,2 The global prevalence of diabetes is increasing at an alarming rate, posing a significant public health challenge. According to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), approximately 537 million adults were living with diabetes in 2021, with projections indicating this number will rise to 783 million by 2045.3–5 T2DM accounts for approximately 90% of all diabetes cases.6,7 Its pathophysiology is multifactorial, involving insulin resistance, impaired pancreatic β-cell function, and other metabolic disturbances.8,9 Peripheral tissues, such as skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue, progressively lose their…